Early School Leavers Essay

Why do student dropout of school? Do you know why students drop out of school? Nowadays students usually drop out of school, to get a career. More than before job seekers are looking for people who have finished high school (at least). The fact that students drop out of school is caused for different reasons. There are three main causes why students drop out of school: they can’t afford tuition, they prefer to work, and they fail the course. Family problems are one cause. If parents are divorced, no-one may be taking responsibility for the child. If parents are uneducated, there may be little encouragement to do homework or to stay in school. Financial factors are also important. Some students want to work in order to support their families. In contrast, others may have family businesses and not see any benefit in obtaining a high school certificates. Perhaps the main reason why students drop out is for academic reasons. For many students, school is stifling and boring. The curriculum does not challenge them or grab their attention and they are unable to be creative. Others have learning difficulties that need specialist help. New Zealand has the second-worst drop-out rate in the developed world. It shows that 26. 9 per cent of New Zealanders aged 15 to 19 are not in education. More than a quarter of Kiwi teenagers quit school early. Many students fail to complete their basic schooling. This can cause serious problems for the individual, their families and the country. In this opinion, I will examine the reasons why students leave school early, and suggest some possible solutions. I both agree and disagree with the reasons presented here. The paper said one of the main reasons is that students drop out because they PERCEIVE that classes are boring. The truth is that many classes ARE extremely dull, due to poor lesson-planning and unmotivated, apathetic teachers. Demonizing the students’ perception of the classes is nothing more than a tactful yet deceptive approach at the internal shortcomings of the educational bureaucracy. Instead of engaging work and active intellectual discussion/debate, students are forced to jump through the hoops of pointless busy work and futile self-help/self-awareness assignments such as this one. Student disinterest and apathy are products of a stagnant and stifling environment. Dropout rates, I personally believe, would be exponentially lowered if educators took a less bureaucratic approach at student achievement. You can’t have a successful one size fits all plan that will actually end up working. The theories of Dr. Howard Gardner attest to this by outlining the many different ways that people can think. Standards written by left-brain officials cannot work for predominantly right-brain students. For years in this school system my creativity and viewpoints have improve in some classes, but for the most part have been stifled by teachers not willing to either put forth the effort necessary to facilitate such individuality or that are simply opposed to any unorthodox thinking or changes in practice. In an environment where the students are not the â€Å"customers† and when individuality is squelched in the name of following senseless, regimented practices, the students are done a great disservice. I am committed to graduate ONLY because I know that I must do so to get anywhere in life. I am frustrated, dissatisfied, and stifled by MANY of the practices employed in many classes I have this year and have had in the past within the school system. Many who read what I have written here will look down on my views, because they will [see] them as â€Å"rocking the boat,† something that I believe it is safe to say is frowned upon here as a general rule. There is a quote by John Locke that says, â€Å"New opinions are always suspected and usually opposed, without any other reason but because they are not common. There is such logic in this and the sad thing is that my ideas (in this respect) are neither new nor radical, only despised because they require energetic commitment to be put into practice. It saddens me deeply that the school boasts of a forward-thinking, cutting-edge, technologically-cantered, example-setting school system, when in reality these claims are only partially true. Money is NOT the issue. I am so fed up with the excuse of lack of funding bein g used to excuse time-wasting, needless activities! An engaging, entertaining, worthwhile class can be executed with nothing more than a committed instructor and engaged students . I am not referring to some ideal, yet non-existent classroom setting. My PHYSICS class this year has been absolutely enthralling EVEN THOUGH some of the required, yet frustrating practices have been implemented in her class on a regular basis. At the end of the day, those who come to school with a genuine DESIRE to take something away from the experience do so; and those who have no drive do not do so, REGARDLESSS of the implementation of the practices put into place in hopes of improving student achievement. The problem with these types of measures is that they focus solely on boosting TEST SCORES. THIS IS NOT THE PROPER APPROACH! (Standardized tests are 9 times out of 10 are a very poor representation of student UNDERSTANDING. Simple memorization is not adequate education! I can memorize scores of random information and then ace a test over it, but all that proves is that I have a good memory. Memory is of importance, there is no doubt of this, but equally, it is NOT the main goal. A deep understanding of the material is vastly more instrumental in the students gaining REAL-WORLD understanding. It is no wonder to me why so many graduates/dropouts here go into construction/metalworking, etc. These are the only classes many individuals find worthwhile because they are the few classes offered that provide hands-on experience that guarantee understanding through practice, not simple words. I guarantee you I can read an instructional book on how to do just about ANYTHING, and then write extensively on how to do it, but that writing is no proof whatsoever that I actually understand how to perform said task or that I am physically capable of doing the activity in a real-world setting. I have a lot more that I could say but basically all I’m trying to get across is that the entire focus in this school is wrong and that is one of the main reasons for teenage dropouts here. As can be seen, there is no one solution to the problem of school drop-outs. Educational authorities, parents and schools need to work closely together to find the reason for each student’s decision to leave school, and to try to do as much as possible to encourage them to stay in the system.

Hosptial Acquired Infection

Propose how would you minimise the occurrence of hospital acquired infection and monitor degree of success of these measures. INTRODUCTION The occurrence and undesirable complications from hospital acquired infections (HAIs) have been well recognized for the last several decades. The occurrence of HAIs continues to escalate at an alarming rate. HAIs originally referred to those infections associated with admission in an acute-care hospital (formerly called a nosocomial infection).These unanticipated infections develop during the course of health care treatment and result in significant patient illnesses and deaths (morbidity and mortality); prolong the duration of hospital stays; and necessitate additional diagnostic and therapeutic interventions, which generate added costs to those already incurred by the patient’s underlying disease (Bauman, 2011). HAIs are considered an undesirable outcome, and as some are preventable, they are considered an indicator of the quality of pati ent care, an adverse event, and a patient safety issue.Patient safety studies published in 1991 reveal the most frequent types of adverse events affecting hospitalized patients are adverse drug events, nosocomial infections, and surgical complications (Aboelela, 2006). Over years there is an alarming increase in HAI, which is influenced by factors such as increasing inpatient acuity of illness, inadequate nurse-patient staffing ratios, unavailability of system resources, and other demands that have challenged health care providers to consistently apply evidence-based recommendations to maximize prevention efforts. Read Chapter 8 Microbial GeneticsDespite these demands on health care workers and resources, reducing preventable HAIs remains an imperative mission and is a continuous opportunity to improve and maximize patient safety. Another factor emerging to motivate health care facilities to maximize HAI prevention efforts is the growing public pressure on State legislators to enact laws requiring hospitals to disclose hospital-specific morbidity and mortality rates.Institute of Medicine report identified HAIs as a patient safety concern and recommends immediate and strong mandatory reporting of other adverse health events, suggesting that public monitoring may hold health care facilities more accountable to improve the quality of medical care and to reduce the incidence of infections. Monitoring both process and outcome measures and assessing their correlation is a model approach to establish that good processes lead to good health care outcomes.Process measures should reflect common practice s, apply to a variety of health care settings, and have appropriate inclusion and exclusion criteria. Examples include insertion practices for central intravenous catheters, appropriate timing of antibiotic prophylaxis in surgical patients, and rates of influenza vaccination for health care workers and patients. Outcome measures should be chosen based on the frequency, severity, and preventability of the outcome events. Examples include intravascular catheter-related blood stream infection rates and surgical-site infections in selected operations.Although these occur at relatively low frequency, the severity is high—these infections are associated with substantial morbidity, mortality, and excess health care costs—and there are evidence-based prevention strategies available (Filetoth, 2003). PATIENTS RISK FACTORS FOR HEALTH CARE-ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS Transmission of infection within a hospittal requires three elements: a source of infecting microorganisms, a susceptibl e host, and a means of transmission for the microorganism to the host.During the delivery of health care, patients can be exposed to a variety of exogenous microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa) from other patients, health care personnel, or visitors. Other reservoirs include the patient’s endogenous flora (e. g. , residual bacteria residing on the patient’s skin, mucous membranes, gastrointestinal tract, or respiratory tract) which may be difficult to suppress and inanimate environmental surfaces or objects that have become contaminated (e. g. , patient room touch surfaces, equipment, medications).The most common sources of infectious agents causing HAI, described are the individual patient, medical equipment or devices, the hospital environment, the health care personnel, contaminated drugs, contaminated food, and contaminated patient care equipment. Patients have varying susceptibility to develop an infection after exposure to a pathogenic organism. Some people have innate protective mechanisms and will never develop symptomatic disease and others exposed to the same microorganism may establish a commensal relationship and retain the organisms as an asymptomatic carrier (colonization) or develop an active isease process. Intrinsic risk factors predispose patients to HAIs. The higher likelihood of infection is reflected in vulnerable patients who are immunocompromised, underlying diseases, severity of illness, immunosuppressive medications, or medical/surgical treatments (Bauman, 2011). Extrinsic risk factors include surgical or other invasive procedures, diagnostic or therapeutic interventions (e. g. , invasive devices, implanted foreign bodies, organ transplantations, immunosuppressive medications), and personnel exposures.In addition to providing a portal of entry for microbial colonization or infection, they also facilitate transfer of pathogens from one part of the patient’s body to another, from health care worker to patient, or from patient to health care worker to patient. Infection risk associated with these extrinsic factors can be decreased with the knowledge and application of evidence-based infection control practices. Among patients and health care personnel, microorganisms are spread to others through four common routes of transmission: contact (direct and indirect), respiratory droplets, airborne spread, and common vehicle.Contact transmission is the most important and frequent mode of transmission in the health care setting. Organisms are transferred through direct contact between an infected or colonized patient and a susceptible health care worker or another person. Microorganisms that can be spread by contact include those associated with impetigo, abscess, diarrheal diseases, scabies, and antibiotic-resistant organisms (e. g. , methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus [MRSA] and vancomycin-resistant enterococci [VRE]).Droplet-size body fluids containing microorganisms can be generated during coughing, sneezing, talking, suctioning, and bronchoscopy. They are propelled a short distance before settling quickly onto a surface. They can cause infection by being deposited directly onto a susceptible person’s mucosal surface (e. g. , conjunctivae, mouth, or nose) or onto nearby environmental surfaces, which can then be touched by a susceptible person who autoinoculates their own mucosal surface.Examples of diseases where microorganisms can be spread by droplet transmission are pharyngitis, meningitis, and pneumonia. When small-particle-size microorganisms (e. g. , tubercle bacilli, varicella, and rubeola virus) remain suspended in the air for long periods of time, they can spread to other people. The CDC has described an approach to reduce transmission of microorganisms through airborne spread in its Guideline for Isolation Precautions in Hospitals. Proper use of personal protective equipment (e. g. gloves, masks, and gowns), aseptic technique, hand hy giene, and environmental infection control measures are primary methods to protect the patient from transmission of microorganisms from another patient and from the health care worker (Filetoth, 2003). Personal protective equipment also protects the health care worker from exposure to microorganisms in the health care setting. Common vehicle (common source) transmission applies when multiple people are exposed to and become ill from a common inanimate vehicle of contaminated food, water, medications, solutions, devices, or equipment.Bacteria can multiply in a common vehicle but viral replication cannot occur. Examples include improperly processed food items that become contaminated with bacteria, waterborne shigellosis, bacteremia resulting from use of intravenous fluids contaminated with a gram-negative organism, contaminated multi-dose medication vials, or contaminated bronchoscopes. Common vehicle transmission is likely associated with a unique outbreak setting and will not be di scussed further in this document. STEPS TO MINIMISE THE RISKEssential components of effective infection control programs included conducting organized surveillance and control activities, a trained infection control physician, an infection control nurse for every 250 beds, and a process for feedback of infection rates to clinical care staff. These programmatic components have remained consistent over time and are adopted in the infection control standards of the Joint Commission. The evolving responsibility for operating and maintaining a facility-wide effective infection control program lies within many domains.Both hospital administrators and health care workers are tasked to demonstrate effectiveness of infection control programs, assure adequate staff training in infection control, assure that surveillance results are linked to performance measurement improvements, evaluate changing priorities based on ongoing risk assessments, ensure adequate numbers of competent infection cont rol practitioners, and perform program evaluations using quality improvement tools as indicated. a)Infection Control PersonnelIt has been demonstrated that infection control personnel play an important role in preventing patient and health care worker infections and preventing medical errors. An infection control practitioner (ICP) is typically assigned to perform ongoing surveillance of infections for specific wards, calculate infection rates and report these data to essential personnel, perform staff education and training, respond to and implement outbreak control measures, and consult on employee health issues.This specialty practitioner gains expertise through education involving infection surveillance, infection control, and epidemiology from current scientific publications and basic training courses offered by professional organizations or health care institutions. The Certification Board of Infection Control offers certification that an ICP has the standard core set of knowl edge in infection control. Expert review panel recommends 1 full-time ICP for every 100 occupied beds (Filetoth, 2003).To maximize successful strategies for the prevention of infection and other adverse events associated with the delivery of health care in the entire spectrum of health care settings, infection control personnel and departments must be expanded. b)Nursing Responsibilities Clinical care staff and other health care workers are the frontline defense for applying daily infection control practices to prevent infections and transmission of organisms to other patients.Although training in preventing bloodborne pathogen exposures is required annually by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, clinical nurses (registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, and certified nursing assistants) and other health care staff should receive additional infection control training and periodic evaluations of aseptic care as a planned patient safety activity. Nurses have the uni que opportunity to directly reduce health care–associated infections through recognizing and applying evidence-based procedures to prevent HAIs among patients and protecting the health of the staff.Clinical care nurses directly prevent infections by performing, monitoring, and assuring compliance with aseptic work practices; providing knowledgeable collaborative oversight on environmental decontamination to prevent transmission of microorganisms from patient to patient; and serve as the primary resource to identify and refer ill visitors or staff. PREVENTION STRATERGIES Multiple factors influence the development of HAIs, including patient variables (e. g. , acuity of illness and overall health status), patient care variables (e. g. antibiotic use, invasive medical device use), administrative variables (e. g. , ratio of nurses to patients, level of nurse education, permanent or temporary/float nurse), and variable use of aseptic techniques by health care staff. Although HAIs a re commonly attributed to patient variables and provider care, researchers have also demonstrated that other institutional influences may contribute to adverse outcomes. To encompass overall prevention efforts, a list of strategies are reviewed that apply to the clinical practice of an individual health care worker as well as institutional supportive measures.Adherence to these principles will demonstrate that you H. E. L. P. C. A. R. E. This acronym is used to introduce the following key concepts to reduce the incidence of health care–associated infections. It emphasizes the compassion and dedication of nurses where their efforts contribute to reduce morbidity and mortality from health care–associated infections. Hand Hygiene For the last 160 years, we have had the scientific knowledge of how to reduce hand contamination and thereby decrease patient infection.Epidemiologic studies continue to demonstrate the favorable cost-benefit ratio and positive effects of simple hand washing for preventing transmission of pathogens in health care facilities. The use of antiseptic hand soaps (i. e. , ones containing chlorhexidine) and alcohol-based hand rubs also effectively reduce bacterial counts on hands when used properly. Although standards for hand hygiene practices have been published with an evidence-based guideline and professional collaborations have produced the How-to-Guide: Improving Hand Hygiene, there is no standardized method or tool for measuring adherence to institutional policy.Key points †¢The practice of appropriate hand hygiene and glove usage is a major contributor to patient safety and reduction in HAIs. It is more cost effective than the treatment costs involved in a health care–associated infection. †¢Joint Commission infection control standards include hand washing and HAI sentinel event review, which are applicable to ambulatory care, behavioral health care, home care, hospitals, laboratories, and long-term care o rganizations accredited by the Joint Commission. Hand hygiene is the responsibility of the individual practitioner and the institution. Developing a patient safety culture backed by administrative support to provide resources and incentives for hand washing is crucial to a successful outcome. †¢Hand hygiene promotion should be an institutional priority. †¢Select methods to promote and monitor improved hand hygiene. Monitor outcomes of adherence to hand hygiene in association with reduced incidence of HAI. †¢Establish an evaluation model to recognize missed opportunities for appropriate hand hygiene.Environmental cleanliness The health care environment surrounding a patient contains a diverse population of pathogenic microorganisms that arise from a patient’s normal, intact skin or from infected wounds. Approximately 106 flat, keratinized, dead squamous epithelium cells containing microorganisms are shed daily from normal skin, and patient gowns, bed linens, and bedside furniture can easily become contaminated with patient flora. Surfaces in the patient care setting can also be contaminated with pathogenic organisms (e. g. from a patient colonized or infected with MRSA, VRE, or Clostridium difficile) and can harbor viable organisms for several days. Contaminated surfaces, such as blood pressure cuffs, nursing uniforms, faucets, and computer keyboards, can serve as reservoirs of health care pathogens and vectors for cross-contamination to patients. It is necessary to consistently perform hand hygiene after routine patient care or contact with environmental surfaces in the immediate vicinity of the patient. Infection control procedures are recommended to reduce cross-contamination under the following situations. . Use EPA-registered chemical germicides for standard cleaning and disinfection of medical equipment that comes into contact with more than one patient. 2. If Clostridium difficile infection has been documented, use hypochlorite-base d products for surface disinfection as no EPA-registered products are specific for inactivating the spore form of the organism. 3. Ensure compliance by housekeeping staff with cleaning and disinfection procedures, particularly high-touch surfaces in patient care areas (e. . , bed rails, carts, charts, bedside commodes, doorknobs, or faucet handles). 4. When contact precautions are indicated for patient care (e. g. , MRSA, VRE, C. difficile, abscess, diarrheal disease), use disposable patient care items (e. g. , blood pressure cuffs) wherever possible to minimize cross-contamination with multiple drug-resistant microorganisms. 5. Advise families, visitors, and patients regarding the importance of hand hygiene to minimize the spread of body substance contamination (e. g. respiratory secretions or fecal matter) to surfaces. A patient safety goal could be to adopt a personal or an institutional pledge, similar to the following: I (or name of health care facility) am committed to ensurin g that proper infection control and environmental disinfection procedures are performed to reduce cross-contamination and transmission so that a person admitted or visiting to this facility shall not become newly colonized or infected with a bacterium derived from another patient or health care worker’s microbial flora.Leadership Health care workers dedicate enormous effort to providing care for complex medical needs of patients, to heal, to continuously follow science to improve the quality of care—all the while consciously performing to the best of their ability to Primum non nocere (First, do no harm). Though medical errors and adverse events do occur, many can be attributed to system problems that have impacted processes used by the health care worker, leading to an undesired outcome.Responsibility for risk reduction involves the institution administrators, directors, and individual practitioners. It is clear that leaders drive values, values drive behaviors, and b ehaviors drive performance of an organization. The collective behaviors of an organization define its culture. The engagement of nursing leaders to collaborate with coworkers and hospital administrators in safety, teamwork, and communication strategies are critical requirements to improve safe and reliable care.Each institution must communicate the evidence-based practices to health care staff, have access to expertise about infection control practices, employ the necessary resources and incentives to implement change, and receive real-time feedback of national and comparative hospital-specific data. Health care institutions simply must expect more reliable performance of essential infection-control practices, such as hand hygiene and proper use of gloves. It is no longer acceptable for hospitals with substandard adherence to these basic interventions to excuse their performance as being no worse than the dismal results in published reports.Institution improvements should focus on p rocess improvements that sustain best practices, using multifactorial approaches, and a commitment from the top administration through all levels of staff and employees to implement best practices. Use of personal protective equipment Infection control practices to reduce HAI include the use of protective barriers (e. g. , gloves, gowns, face mask, protective eyewear, face shield) to reduce occupational transmission of organisms from the patient to the health care worker and from the health care worker to the patient.Personal protective equipment (PPE) is used by health care workers to protect their skin and mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth from exposure to blood or other potentially infectious body fluids or materials and to avoid parenteral contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s Bloodborne Pathogens Standard states that health care workers should receive education on the use of protective barriers to prevent occupational exposures, be able to identify work-related infection risks, and have access to PPE and vaccinations.Proper usage, wear, and removal of PPE are important to provide maximum protection to the health care worker. Various types of masks, goggles, and face shields are worn alone or in combination to provide barrier protection. A surgical mask protects a patient against microorganisms from the wearer and protects the health care worker from large-particle droplet spatter that may be created from a splash-generating procedure. When a mask becomes wet from exhaled moist air, the resistance to airflow through the mask increases.This causes more airflow to pass around edges of the mask. The mask should be changed between patients, and if at anytime the mask becomes wet, it should be changed as soon as possible. Gowns are worn to prevent contamination of clothing and to protect the skin of health care personnel from blood and body fluid exposures. Gowns specially treated to make them impermeable to liquids, le g coverings, boots, or shoe covers provide greater protection to the skin when splashes or large quantities of potentially infective material are present or anticipated.Gowns are also worn during the care of patients infected with epidemiologically important microorganisms to reduce the opportunity for transmission of pathogens from patients or items in their environment to other patients or environments. When gowns are worn, they must be removed before leaving the patient care area and hand hygiene must be performed. Wise use of antimicrobials Over the last several decades, a shift in the etiology of more easily treated pathogens has increased toward more antimicrobial-resistant pathogens with fewer options for therapy.Infections from antimicrobial-resistant bacteria increase the cost of health care, cause higher morbidity and mortality, and lengthen hospital stays compared to infections from organisms susceptible to common, inexpensive antimicrobials (Aboelela, 2006). Antimicrobia l resistance has continued to emerge as a significant hospital problem affecting patient outcomes by enhancing microbial virulence, causing a delay in the administration of effective antibiotic therapy, and limiting options for available therapeutic agents.Authors of evidence-based guidelines on the increasing occurrence of multidrug-resistant organisms propose these interventions: stewardship of antimicrobial use, an active system of surveillance for patients with antimicrobial-resistant organisms, and an efficient infection control program to minimize secondary spread of resistance. Antimicrobial stewardship includes not only limiting the use of inappropriate agents, but also selecting the appropriate antibiotic, dosage, and duration of therapy to achieve optimal efficacy in managing infections (Aboelela, 2006).Hospital campaigns to prevent antimicrobial resistance include steps to (1) employ programs to prevent infections, (2) use strategies to diagnose and treat infections effec tively, (3) operate and evaluate antimicrobial use guidelines (stop orders, restrictions, and criteria-based clinical practice guidelines), and (4) ensure infection control practices to reduce the likelihood of transmission. Nurse practitioners have a role as part of the health care team diagnosing and treating infections appropriately and should be familiar with strategies to improve antimicrobial use.All health care workers play a critical role in reducing the risk of transmission. Respiratory hygiene Respiratory viruses are easily disseminated in a closed setting such as a health care facility and can cause outbreaks that contribute to the morbidity of patients and health care staff. Personnel and patients with a respiratory illness commonly transmit viruses through droplet spread. Droplets are spread into the air during sneezing, talking, and coughing and can settle on surfaces.Transmission occurs by direct contact with mucous membranes or by touching a contaminated surface and self-inoculating mucous membranes. Respiratory viruses can sometimes have aerosol dissemination. Precautions to prevent the transmission of all respiratory illnesses, including influenza, have been developed. The following infection control measures should be implemented at the first point of contact with a symptomatic or potentially infected person. Occupational health policies should be in place to guide management of symptomatic health care workers. 1.Post visual alerts (in appropriate languages) at the entrance to outpatient facilities instructing patients and escorts (e. g. , family, friends) to notify health care personnel of symptoms of a respiratory infection when they first register for care. 2. Patients and health care staff should consistently practice the following: a. Cover the nose/mouth when coughing or sneezing. b. Use tissues to contain respiratory secretions and dispose of them in the nearest waste receptacle after use. c. Perform hand hygiene after having contact with respiratory secretions and contaminated objects or materials. . During periods of increased respiratory infection activity in the community or year-round, offer masks to persons who are coughing. Either procedure masks (i. e. , with ear loops) or surgical masks (i. e. , with ties) may be used to contain respiratory secretions. Encourage coughing persons to sit at least 3 feet away from others in common waiting areas. 4. Health care personnel should wear a surgical or procedure mask for close contact (and gloves as needed) when examining a patient with symptoms of a respiratory infection.Maintain precautions unless it is determined that the cause of symptoms is not an infectious agent (e. g. , allergies). CONCLUSION It is the responsibility of all health care providers to enact principles of care to prevent hospital acquired infections, though not all infections can be prevented. Certain patient risk factors such as advanced age, underlying disease and severity of illness, and s ometimes the immune status are not modifiable and directly contribute to a patient’s risk of infection.Depending on the patient’s susceptibility, a patient can develop an infection due to the emergence of their own endogenous organisms or by cross-contamination in the health care setting. Nurses can reduce the risk for infection and colonization using evidence-based aseptic work practices that diminish the entry of endogenous or exogenous organisms via invasive medical devices. Proper use of personal protective barriers and proper hand hygiene is paramount to reducing the risk of exogenous transmission to a susceptible patient.Health care workers should be aware that they can pick up environmental contamination of microorganisms on hands or gloves, even without performing direct patient care. Proper use and removal of PPE followed by hand hygiene will reduce the transient microbial load that can be transmitted to self or to others. ? REFERENCE †¢Aboelela S W, Saim an L, Stone P, et al. (2006) Effectiveness of barrier precautions and surveillance cultures to control transmission of multidrug-resistant organisms: a systematic review of the literature. J Infect Control, vol: 34(8):484–94. Bauman W R (2011), Microbiology with disease taxonomy, Pearson International Edition, 4th Edition, Pg no: 430 – 434. †¢Carlos F (2007), Antimicrobial resistance in Bacteria, Horizon Bioscience Publications, Pg no: 7 – 14. †¢Filetoth Z (2003), Hospital Acquired Infection, Whurr publishers, Pg no: 97 – 102, 180 – 196, 220 – 232. †¢I W Fong, Drlica K(2008), Antimicrobial resistance and implication for the 21st century, Springer publications, Pg no: 231- 235. †¢Madigan M, Martinko J, Stahl D (2009), Brock Biology of Microorganisms, Pearsons Publications, 13th Edition, Pg no: 954- 957. Muto C A, Jernigan J A, Ostrowsky BE, et al. (2003) SHEA guideline for preventing nosocomial transmission of multidrug-re sistant strains of Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus. Infect Cont Hosp Epidem, Vol: 24(5):362–86. †¢Ryan J, Ray C G et al. (2010), Sherris Medical Microbiology, International Edition, 5th Edition, Pg no: 89 – 98. †¢Wyllie D, Connor L, Walker S, Davies J et al (2013), Annual Report of Chief Medical Officier, Chapter 4: Health care associated infections, Pg no: 63-72. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Respiratory hygiene/cough etiquette in healthcare settings. 2010. [Accessed march 2013]. Available at: http://www. cdc. gov/flu/professionals/infectioncontrol/resphygiene. htm. †¢Institute for Healthcare Improvement. How-to guide: improving hand hygiene. a guide for improving practices among health care workers. [Accessed March 2013]. Author. Available at: http://www. ihi. org/IHI/Topics/CriticalCare/IntensiveCare/Tools/HowtoGuideImprovingHandHygiene. htm.

Character and Setting Analysis of the Play Fences

Arguably August Wilsons most renowned work, Fences explores the life and relationships of the Maxson family. This moving drama was written in 1983 and earned Wilson his first Pulitzer Prize. Fences  is part of  August Wilsons Pittsburg Cycle, a collection of ten plays. Each drama explores a different decade in the 20th century, and each examines the lives and struggles of African-Americans. The protagonist, Troy Maxson is a restless trash-collector and former baseball athlete. Though deeply flawed, he represents the struggle for justice and fair treatment during the 1950s. Troy also represents human natures reluctance to recognize and accept social change. In the playwrights setting description, symbols connected to his character can be found: the house, the incomplete fence, the porch, and the makeshift baseball tied to a tree branch. Origins of Troy Maxson According to Joseph Kelly, editor of The Seagull Reader: Plays, Troy Maxson is loosely based upon August Wilsons step-father, David Bedford. The following can be said about both men: Talented, young athletes.Unable to attend college.Turned to crime for income.Killed a man.Spent decades in prison.Married and settled down to a new life after a  prison term. The Setting Reveals the Man The set description provides several clues to the heart of Troy Maxsons character. Fences takes place in the front yard of Troys ancient two-story brick house. The house is a source of both pride and shame for Troy. He is proud to provide a home for his family. He is also ashamed because he realizes that the only way he could afford the house is through his brother (a mentally unstable WWII veteran) and the disability checks he receives because of it. Building Fences Also mentioned in the setting description, an incomplete fence borders part of the yard. Tools and lumber are off to the side. These set pieces will provide the literal and metaphoric activity of the play: building a fence around Troys property. Questions to consider in an essay about Fences: What does the act of building a fence symbolize?What is Troy Maxson trying to keep out?What is he trying to keep in? Troys Porch and Homelife According to the playwrights description, the wooden porch is badly in need of paint. Why does it need paint? Well, in practical terms, the porch is a recent addition to the house. Therefore, it could simply be seen as a task not quite finished. However, the porch is not the only thing in dire need of attention. Troys wife of eighteen years, Rose, has also been neglected. Troy has spent time and energy on both his wife and the porch. However, Troy ultimately does not commit to his marriage nor to the unpainted, unfinished porch, leaving each to the mercy of the elements. Baseball and Fences At the beginning of the script, August Wilson makes certain to mention an important prop placement. A baseball bat leans against the tree and a ball of rags is tied to a branch. Both Troy and his teenage son Cory (a football star in the making - if it wasnt for his embittered father) practice swinging at the ball. Later on in the play, when the father and son argue, the bat will be turned on Troy - though Troy will ultimately win in that confrontation. Troy Maxson was a great baseball player, at least according to his friend Bono. Although he played brilliantly for the Negro Leagues, he was not allowed to on the white teams, unlike Jackie Robinson. The success of Robinson and other black players is a sore subject for Troy. Because he was born at the wrong time, he never earned the recognition or the money which he felt he deserved and discussion of professional sports will often send him into a tirade. Baseball serves as Troys main way of explaining his actions. When he talks about facing death, he uses baseball terminology, comparing a face-off with the grim reaper to a duel between a pitcher and a batter. When he bullies his son Cory, he warns him: TROY: You swung and you missed. Thats strike one. Dont you strike out! During Act Two of Fences, Troy confesses to Rose about his infidelity. He explains not only that he has a mistress, but that she is pregnant with his child. He uses a baseball metaphor to explain why he had an affair: TROY: I fooled them, Rose. I bunted. When I found you and Cory and a halfway decent job . . . I was safe. Couldnt nothing touch me. I wasnt gonna strike out no more. I wasnt going back to the penitentiary. I wasnt gonna lay in the streets with a bottle of wine. I was safe. I had me a family. A job. I wasnt gonna get that last strike. I was on first looking for one of them boys to knock me in. To get me home.​ ROSE: You should have stayed in my bed, Troy. TROY: Then when I saw that gal . . . she firmed up my backbone. And I got to thinking that if I tried . . . I just might be able to steal second. Do you understand after eighteen years I wanted to steal second. Troy the Garbage Man The final details mentioned in the setting description reflect Troys later years as a hard-working garbage man. August Wilson writes, Two oil drums serve as garbage receptacles and sit near the house. For nearly two decades, Troy worked from the back of the garbage truck alongside his friend Bono. Together, they hauled junk throughout the neighborhoods and alleyways of Pittsburg. But Troy wanted more. So, he finally sought a promotion - not an easy task due to the white, racist employers and union members. Ultimately, Troy earns the promotion, allowing him to drive the garbage truck. However, this creates a solitary occupation, distancing himself from Bono and other friends (and perhaps symbolically separating himself from his African-American community).

10 Easy Ways of Helping Turtles Survive

Sea turtles have lived on Earth for about 110 million years. However, due to human activity, 6 of the 7 sea turtle species—green, Kemp’s ridley, olive ridley, flatback, hawksbill, and leatherback—are now classified as endangered. The seventh species, the loggerhead, is classified as threatened (likely to become an endangered species in the near future). Organizations Dedicated to Helping Sea Turtles Contact the following organizations to donate, volunteer, and learn more about ways to help the sea turtles:Sea Turtle ConservancySEE TurtlesTurtle Island Restoration NetworkThe Ocean FoundationOceanic Society How to Help Sea Turtles Survive According to the Sea Turtle Conservancy and the World Wildlife Fund, sea turtles face threats from overharvesting and poaching, global warming, ocean pollution, and the encroachment of human activity on their nesting sites. Although targeting these problems may seem like an overwhelming task, there are specific actions you can take to ensure the survival of sea turtles. Baby hawksbill turtle after being rescued. Jereme Thaxton/Getty Images Source Your Seafood Responsibly Sea turtles often become the bycatch of irresponsible fishing methods. Educate yourself on how your seafood was caught and support organizations that advocate for the sustainable catching of seafood. The Monterey Bay Aquariums Seafood Watch website and app allow you to look up specific types of seafood and determine if they were responsibly sourced. In addition, organizations like Too Rare to Wear also have information on products that have been made from turtle shells, like jewelry and souvenirs, which are often sold to tourists in tropical regions. Get Rid of Pollution Sailors from the USS Thorn use bolt cutters and knives to free the only surviving sea turtle in a group of four found tangled in some long-ago discarded netting, July 10, 2001 in the Mediterranean Sea. U.S. Navy / Getty Images Help make beaches safe for turtles and other marine animals by participating in cleanups to help remove trash from the beach. Doing so will also stop more trash from entering the oceans, reducing the chances that a turtle may become trapped or eat it. Many local groups organize such cleanups year-round, or you can organize a beach clean-up day with some friends. Cleaning up the beach may also help make that locations habitable for turtles again. After a 2-year beach cleanup in Miami that removed over 11 million pounds of trash from the environment, olive ridley turtle hatchlings were spotted making their way from the nest to the ocean, which had not occurred in decades. Previously, the turtles had been able to lay eggs on the beach but could not maneuver in the trash. Replace Disposable Plastic With Reusable Items Plastic bag at sea. These can be dangerous to sea turtles who mistake them for food, such as jellyfish. _548901005677/Moment Open/Getty Images You can help prevent trash from ever entering the ocean in the first place by recycling and reducing the amount of trash that you create. For some items, consider using their reusable counterparts, like shopping bags and water bottles to reduce your chances of polluting the beach. Plastic bags are especially troublesome, as sea turtles can mistake them for their favorite snack: jellyfish. You can also avoid other single-use items, like balloons during a birthday beach bash, which will likely end up in the ocean where they will be eaten by turtles and other wildlife. Keep Beaches Dark at Night WWF volunteers coax released baby green turtles that were found at a nest site the day before, to the waters edge with lights at Acyatan Beach on August 23, 2018 in Adana, Turkey. Chris McGrath / Getty Images Nesting turtles and hatchlings use the moons natural lighting as a guide. Instinctively, they follow the brightest direction to find their way to the water, but if they are disoriented by artificial lighting, they may wander inland and die of dehydration or predation. Avoid all forms of artificial light while at the beach at night, including flashlights, flash photography, video cameras, and fires on nesting beaches. If you do need lighting, try to avoid directly illuminating the beach, using a shade to minimize the amount of light shining in the area. If staying at a beachfront property, be sure to turn off all lights at night. If you do see disoriented baby turtles at night, do not take it upon yourself to move the turtles. Contact a nature conservancy organization or local authorities. Be Careful When Boating and Fishing A moving boat can seriously injure or kill a turtle, so stay alert if you are boating in the ocean. If you spot sea turtles in the water, stay at least 50 yards away. If they are close to your boat, put your engine on neutral or turn it off until the turtles swim away. Change your fishing location if you spot sea turtles nearby or they show interest in your bait. And remember to collect all of your fishing gear and supplies once youre done, especially fishing line, hooks, and nets. Don’t Disturb the Turtles An NPS volunteer helps Kemps ridley sea turtle hatchlings reach the water at South Padre Island National Seashore. Who knew volunteering could be so adorable?.  © qnr via Flickr Never pick up a hatchling. Though it may be tempting, doing so may frighten or disorient them. If you do want to watch one, attend a sea turtle watch hosted by an organization, which would allow you to observe the sea turtles without disturbing them. Do not catch a baby turtle in an aquarium or bucket of water. This will use up the energy they need to swim to the ocean after they emerge from their nest. Reduce Your Carbon Footprint Global warming can skew the gender ratios of sea turtles, as well as the distribution of predators and prey. Although climate change might seem like too big an issue to tackle, there are many steps you can personally take to reduce global warming. Adopt a Sea Turtle Support sea turtle conservation efforts by â€Å"adopting a sea turtle† or making a donation to a wildlife conservation program that monitors and helps satellite-tracked turtles. You can also â€Å"adopt a nest† during nesting season. Avoid Beach Activities at Night Try to avoid walking on the beach at night during the summer, as this may frighten nesting turtles back into the sea. To help make it easier for turtles to navigate the beach, you can also remove beach furniture and other equipment from the beach before the nighttime, as turtles may become caught in them or become disoriented. Help Spread Awareness There are many ways you can help make a positive change for sea turtles. One main way is through education. You can help educate your local neighborhood or school by giving presentations, and tell people about the cause during conversations. Sources â€Å"Adoption Programs.† Seaturtle.org, Seaturtle.org, www.seaturtle.org/adopt/.â€Å"Endangered Ocean: Sea Turtles.† Ocean Today, National Ocean Service, oceantoday.noaa.gov/endoceanseaturtles/.â€Å"Information About Sea Turtles, Their Habitats and Threats to Their Survival.† Conserveturtles.org, Sea Turtle Conservancy, conserveturtles.org/information-about-sea-turtles-their-habitats-and-threats-to-their-survival/.â€Å"Ways to Help.† Ways to Help the Sea Turtles, Nova Southeastern University, cnso.nova.edu/seaturtles/ways-to-help.html.â€Å"What Can You Do to Save Sea Turtles?† NOAA Fisheries, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 6 June 2016, www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/what-can-you-do-save-sea-turtles.â€Å"What Is the Difference Between Endangered and Threatened?† Wolf - Western Great Lakes, U.S. Fish Wildlife Service, Mar. 2003, www.fws.gov/midwest/wolf/esastatus/e-vs-t.htm.

Restaurant Review Essay - 584 Words

Restaurant Review nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;It was rainy, crowded and loud at the entrance, the smell of cigarette and rum filled the air of the lobby area. It was Saturday night at the T.G.I.F in San Francisco, the Giant’s were playing so the place was packed and fans were being loud. The restaurant is located on a corner nearby Pier 39 and it almost has an Aspen look to it. The building itself is made of bricks with big colorful windows and huge cherry finished wooden doors with brass handles. Inside, the walls are cherry wood and covered with big mirrors and stuffed dear heads. The tables and chairs are all dark wood with a very rich red color. The atmosphere inside almost had an Irish pub feel to it, people were†¦show more content†¦For an appetizer I ordered a broccoli cheddar soup. The soup was brought out in less than 10 minutes with saltine crackers. It was hot and smelled great, it went with great with the ugly and cold weather outside. The soup was really good thick and creamy and it made me happy and content while waiting for my food. For my main course I ordered the Jack Daniel tower, it consisted of ribs, golden beer battered shrimp sesame chicken and onion rings. I didn’t understand why it was called a tower until they brought it out. The food was arranged in 4 plates from biggest to smallest on this black iron tower. Feeling hungry I went straight for the ribs, they were very tender and meaty along with the sauce made with Jack Daniels whiskey and barbeque sauce. The shrimp were jumbo and good along with the good marinara sauce and squeezed lemon. The sesame chicken was good, it was a mix of sweet and spicy which complemented everything else. The onion rings of course were deep fried and big enough to wear bracelets. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;We were all hungry and had just come out of a really good service from our singles with a cause convention. So the place was perfect because we were able to sit and share the great things God did and also have a good time socializing and getting to know other people from other churches. I don’t recommend the restaurant for a date with your boyfriend or girlShow MoreRelatedOnline Restaurant Reviews And Selecting Restaurant Via Online Reviews1414 Words   |  6 PagesLiterature Review The online restaurant reviews have changed the style of consumers purchasing among the restaurant industry. For this reason, many scholars study the implication of online reviews in the restaurant industry (Schindler Bickart, 2012). 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The Human Brain vs. the Computer Essay Example For Students

The Human Brain vs. the Computer Essay Over the millennia, Man has come up with countless inventions, each moreingenious than the last. However, only now, as the computer arises thatmankinds sentience itself is threatened. Ridiculous, some may cry, but I saylook about you! The computer has already begun to hold sway over so many of thevital functions that man has prided himself upon before. Our lives are nowdependent upon the computer and what it tells you. Even now, I type this essayupon a computer, fully trusting that it will produce a result far superior towhat I can manage with my own to hands and little else. It has been commonly said that the computer can never replace the humanbrain, for it is humans that created them. Is this a good reason why thecomputer must be inferior to humans? Is it always true that the object cannotsurpass its creator? How can this be true? Even if we just focus on a singlecreation of man, say the subject of this essay, the computer, there are manyways in which the computer has the edge over man. Let us start with basiccalculation. The computer has the capability to evaluate problems that man canhardly even imagine, let alone approach. Even if a man can calculate the sameproblems as a computer, the computer can do it far faster than he can possiblyachieve. Let us go one step further. Say this man can calculate as fast as acomputer, can he, as the computer can, achieve a 100% rate of accuracy in hiscalculation? Why do we now go over the human data entry into a computer when amistake is noticed instead of checking the computer? It is because computersnow possess t he ability to hold no error in its operation, where mankind has notadvanced in this area in any noticeable margin. Why do you think the wordshuman error and to err is human have become so popular in recent years? Itis because the failings of the human race are becoming more and more exposed asthe computer advances and becomes more and more omnipotent. Perhaps the computer is not truly a competitor with the human brain butrather its ideal. After all, the computer is far superior to the human brain inthose aspects where the brain is weakest. It is perhaps the attempt of thehuman brain to attain perfection after realising its own weaknesses. If youthink about it carefully, do those who use the computer not use it supplementtheir own creative input? Maybe it is the subconscious attempt by us atreaching the next stage of evolution by our minds, creating a machine to do allthe dirty work for us while we sit back and allow our brains to focus oncreating, or destroying, as the case may be. This machine is the compensationfor the human brains weaknesses. The human brain has flaws in abundance, yet it also has many an edgeover the computer. It has the capacity to create, unlike the computer, and itcan work without full input, making logical assumptions about problems. Aperson can work with a wide variety of methods, seeing new, more efficient waysof handling problems. It can come up with infinite ways of getting aroundproblems encountered in day to day life, whilst a computer has a limitedrepertoire of new tricks it can come up with, limited by its programming. Should improved programming be introduced, it is the human brain that figuresout the programming that will allow leeway for any improvements as vaguelyconceived by the human brain. It is the human brain that conceptualises theformulae and methods by which the computer goes about its work. The human brain,given the time, can learn to understand anything, it can grasp the centralconcept of any concept, whilst the computer tends to take all things in theirentirety, which makes some problems near impossible to solve. Emotions too arean asset. Emotions allow the human brain to have evolved beyond a problem-solving machine. In truth, one characteristic of sentience, as we know it, isemotional maturity! Even a one-year-old baby knows infinitely more aboutemotions than the most sophisticated computers. Emotions open the mind to vast,new realms of possibilities. The reason why computers cannot create is becauseof the lack of emotions. Anger allows the imagination to roam, inventingconcepts of new, ever more powerful weapons of destruction. Discontent inducesthe mind to conceive of new methods of fulfilment that could be expanded intosomething more. Puzzlement causes the mind to think of solutions. Curiosityleads to attempts to satisfy it, producing new discoveries and revelations. .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb , .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .postImageUrl , .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb , .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb:hover , .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb:visited , .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb:active { border:0!important; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb:active , .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue41c820f2fbcf740a0888cc9697ed1fb:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Serial Killer Observation EssayThe computer, on the other hand, though lacking in many aspects, isclearly the superior in many other aspects. In sheer speed of computation andretrieval of data, the computer is obviously by far the stronger. It has thecapacity to handle things on a far grander scale than the human brain could everconceive. The capacity to organise is massively improved as compared to thehuman brain. Measurements, results, applications can all be done down to thetiniest details, far beyond the human brains capabilities. Calculations can bedone with an accuracy nearly impossible to achieve manually. A certainuniformity can be achieved in its functions, someth ing a human can hardly hopeto achieve. The human brain has many flaws just as it has advantages. The randommindset of the human brain gives allowance for many mistakes to be made. Thoughtechnically the potential is there, this potential is never realised. I referto the potential to compute and store memory as efficiently or even more so thana computer. If potential cannot be realised, it is useless and the truecapability of the object is its present capability. The human brain can neverperform tasks as efficiently or as tirelessly than the computer. This isbecause the human brain can get bored quite easily and tends to stray from thetask at hand. The computer does not get tired or bored, it just sits there andworks, no problems. The human brain is a constant. The ability of it has notchanged any time in recorded history, only the knowledge of man has changed, andthis knowledge is invested in the computer anyway. The computer has altereddrastically for the better in such a short period of time that it is incredible. The computer has had improvements added to it almost non-stop, from a simplecalculation device into a marvel of modern science, whilst the human braincannot do anything but just stays there, not changing, not improving. Emotionscan, too, be a liability as well as an asset. Emotions make the minddangerously unstable, performance subject to moods and emotional disruption. The computer suffers no such problems. The human brain is easily stressed outby events and loses effectiveness when tired. Emotions blur the human brainscapacity to make clear, logical decisions, even when they are thrown before itseyes, and impair problem-solving capabilities. Age also has a devastatingeffect on the function of the human brain. Once senility sets in, the brain isof little use to anyone, and the person becomes a liability. Computers are far from perfect themselves. Computers have only alimited capacity for learning and even this usually is not entirely accurate,for the computer lacks the common sense of the human brain, thus it cannotaccurately realise its own mistake, if any. For example, a computer may send a$10 million tax bill to a person earning $30000 a year and not blink an eye, forif there is a bug in the program, it cannot go in by itself and change it. Itwould not even realise that it was making a mistake until a human spots it andcorrects it. Also, a computer cannot create, for creation requires a curiosityand the capacity for independent thought, which is something the computer willnot have, at least in the near future. Lacking the ability to create, it cannottruly pose a threat to mankind, but once it does acquire this ability, it willthen be set to take over from the human brain. The human brain is as incredible as it is flawed, whilst the computer isa fantastic machine, but seriously lacking in many aspects. While neither isperfect on its own, together they complement each other so perfectly that it isa heck of a potent combination. (1436 words) Category: Science

Performance apprisal in the army free essay sample

Appraisals are where you get together with your team leader and agree what an outstanding member of the team you are, how much your contribution has been valued, what massive potential you have and, in recognition of all this, would you mind having your salary halved. â€Å" Guy Browning PREFACE I wish to thank all those who have helped me in completing the study paper. I have had informal discussions with serving and retired senior officers, colleagues as also with the concerned branches of the Armed Forces and their inputs have been invaluable for completing this study paper. We will write a custom essay sample on Performance apprisal in the army or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I also acknowledge the contributions of various writers and peoples who have expressed their views in various websites on the internet, which have been accessed and used by me. I thank my guide Professor for his valuable guidance and assistance without which I would not have been able to complete this study paper. I also thank all the staff and Faculty of Bharatiya Vidhya Bhawan who extended their whole hearted support to me in the process of writing this study paper. INTRODUCTION Definition 1. A performance appraisal (PA), performance review, performance evaluation, (career) development discussion, or employee appraisal is a method by which the job performance of an employee is evaluated. Performance appraisals are a part of career development and consist of regular reviews of employee performance within organizations. ‘Mansa K. Reddy, N. (2009). Role of Training in Improving Performance. The IUP Journal of Soft Skills’’ 2. Performance Appraisal is the formal and structured system of measuring and evaluating an employee’s job related behaviours and outcome to determine how and why the employee is performing on the job and how the employee can perform more effectively in the future to the benefit of the employee, the organization and the society. 3. It is evident from the above that performance appraisal is a measure of both current performance as well as the potential for future employability. It provides information upon which promotion and salary decisions are made. It also provides an opportunity for the employer and the employee to review the work related behaviour of the employee. This in turn allows them to develop plans for correcting any deficiencies noticed during the performance appraisal and reinforce the strengths of the employee. Finally the performance appraisal is central to the career planning process as it provides a platform to review the career plans of the employee in light of his exhibited strengths and weaknesses. 4. Almost all organizations practice performance appraisal in some form to achieve certain objectives. These objectives may vary from organization to organization or even within the same organisation from time to time. There are two primary objectives of performance appraisal – as an evaluation system and as a feedback system. The aim of the evaluation system is to identify the performance gap that is to determine the gap between the actual performance of the employee and the requirement or desired performance by the organization. The aim of the feedback system is to inform the employee about the quality of his work. This is an interactive process where the employee can discuss his work related problems with his manager. Historical Perspective 5. The history of performance appraisal is quite brief. Its roots in the early 20th century can be traced to Taylors pioneering Time and Motion Studies. But this is not very helpful, for the same may be said about almost everything in the field of modern human resources management. 6. As a distinct and formal management procedure used in the evaluation of work performance, appraisal really dates from the time of the Second World War not more than 60 years ago. 7. Yet in a broader sense, the practice of appraisal is a very ancient art. In the scale of things historical, it might well lay claim to being the worlds second oldest profession! 8. There is, says Dulewicz (1989), a basic human tendency to make judgements about those one is working with, as well as about oneself. Appraisal, it seems, is both inevitable and universal. In the absence of a carefully structured system of appraisal, people will tend to judge the work performance of others, including subordinates, naturally, informally and arbitrarily. 9. The human inclination to judge can create serious motivational, ethical and legal problems in the workplace. Without a structured appraisal system, there is little chance of ensuring that the judgements made will be lawful, fair, defensible and accurate. 10. Performance appraisal systems began as simple methods of income justification. That is, appraisal was used to decide whether or not the salary or wage of an individual employee was justified. 11. The process was firmly linked to material outcomes. If an employees performance was found to be less than ideal, a cut in pay would follow. On the other hand, if their performance was better than the supervisor expected, a pay rise was in order. 12. Little consideration, if any, was given to the developmental possibilities of appraisal. If was felt that a cut in pay, or a rise, should provide the only required impetus for an employee to either improve or continue to perform well. 13. Sometimes this basic system succeeded in getting the results that were intended; but more often than not, it failed. 14. For example, early motivational researchers were aware that different people with roughly equal work abilities could be paid the same amount of money and yet have quite different levels of motivation and performance. 15. These observations were confirmed in empirical studies. Pay rates were important, yes; but they were not the only element that had an impact on employee performance. It was found that other issues, such as morale and self-esteem, could also have a major influence. 16. As a result, the traditional emphasis on reward outcomes was progressively rejected. In the 1950s in the United States, the potential usefulness of appraisal as tool for motivation and development was gradually recognized. The general model of performance appraisal, as it is known today, began from that time. PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM 17. Performance Management is the essence of managing and the primary â€Å"Vehicle† for getting the desired results from the employees at all levels in the organization. The performance management process provides an opportunity for the employee and the performance manager to discuss the development goals and to jointly create a plan to achieve them. The plans for the employee should also contribute towards the organizational goals and the growth of the employee. 18. In the absence of a performance management system the staff members are unclear as to the expectations of the employers regarding their performance objectives and standards / targets leading to low productivity, costly mistakes, stress, demotivation and conflict. A sound performance management system subscribes to the crucial principle â€Å"What gets measured, gets done†. The days of having a â€Å"One set of measure fits all† performance management system is inherently flawed and are gone. Performance objectives and measures need to be specific to job categories and individual roles. 19. Performance management is the systematic process by which the organization involves its employees, as individuals and members of the group, in improving organizational effectiveness in the accomplishment mission and goals. Performance management is a holistic process bringing together many activities which collectively contribute to the effective management of individuals and teams in order to achieve high levels of organizational performance. Performance management is strategic in that it is about broader issues and long term goals and integrated as it links various aspects of the business, people management, individual and teams. It strengthens both, individual effectiveness and organizational effectiveness. It is essential that individuals are suitably empowered; however authority and accountability should be commensurate with each other. Such checks and balances would improve the effectiveness of the performance management system. Pre-requisites for Implementing an Effective Performance Management System 20. Certain pre-requisites govern the effectiveness of the performance management system. These are :- (a) Strong commitment from the top management (b) High level of participation of all concerned. (c) Clear definitions of what constitutes performance in a given role/job. This emanates from the objectives of the organization and the department. This should also reflect in the linkages of role with others. (d) Identification of performance parameters and definition of Key Performance Indicators. What comprises the performance has to be communicated to the individual, so that he has an idea about the work expectation from his superior’s (e) Consistency of application. (f) Adequate organizational training to be provided to the individuals to achieve a better performance. (g) Strong commitment to recognize good performance. Introducing a Performance Management System 21. In implementing a Performance Management System, it must be emphasised that the Performance Management System has been designed within the overall strategic framework appropriate for the organization / department. It is also necessary to link individual contributions to the strategic objectives of the organization. It will therefore be necessary for the performance management system to be customised for each organization / department. (a) Strategic Intent. The strategic intent of an organization should cascade into strategic and operational objectives at the departmental level. (b) Individual Assessment. This is the process of self-evaluation and structured discussion aimed at personal, professional and individual development. This process is not intended to be merely judgmental but one that is also developmental. It is intended that the process will provide a regular, open and systematic discussion of how an individual may enhance his role. The process should be seen as providing a means by which an individual contributions are recognised, feedback on individual performances is given, assistance provided to help developing the potential and overcoming problems in an agreed manner. Part of the role of the reviewer is to assist the individual being reviewed in assessing his own performance and development regularly and fairly. The role also extends to assisting the individual in setting objectives and measuring the extent to which these objectives are achieved. Where objectives are not achieved, this can be discussed between the reviewer and the person being reviewed and necessary remedial measure taken. (c) Development of the Individual. One of the main objectives of the performance management system is to provide a systematic means not only of reviewing the past performance, but also to consider future development of the individual. At the departmental level the system can help identify, agree upon and plan the staff development activities that can in turn lead to improved departmental planning and performance. It can also facilitate a better understanding of how all staff members contribute to a department’s activities. Such an engagement can also improve communications between staff members. All staff members regardless of grade or category have the ability to develop their potential in their area of work. The performance management system provides a mechanism for clarifying what is expected of them in their job. It can also help bring about an improved understanding of organisation / departmental objectives and priorities and how individuals’ work and responsibilities relate to these. There will always be strengths and weaknesses at all levels. The process allows these to be identified and the means of overcoming these can be devised. (d) Enhancing Quality. The development of the individual and the delivery of superior quality outcomes is the joint responsibility of individual staff, supervisors and the organization as a whole. The process enables all to agree to relevant goals which are clearly linked to the strategic plans and objectives of the organization. In so far as individual staff is concerned, the process will help them to identify their contributions and how it can be improved upon. (e) Process Review. These should normally be conducted at least twice a year. Procedures for all should be similar in their core contents but may vary as necessary to account for different responsibilities and management structures. A one-to-one discussion and feedback between the reviewer and the person being reviewed should be the norm for review. (f) Self-Monitoring. The formal review meeting would take place once in a review period. It is therefore important that the person being reviewed should monitor his own progress in achieving the objectives on a regular basis. In addition, if the person being reviewed feels there are issues or constrains which are preventing him from achieving the objectives, he should be able to discuss these with his reviewer or if necessary the departmental head Performance Management Of Government Employees 22. Traditionally governance structures in India are characterized by rule based approaches. The focus of the civil services in India is on process regulation that is compliance with centrally prescribed standards and rules; in other words, how things should be done and how inputs should be aligned. Compliance with rules is not sufficient for achieving outcomes and obviously, the objective must be to shift the focus away from traditional concerns such as expenditure and activity levels towards a framework that would manage for results by developing robust indicators to assess performance in terms of results. 23. As performance of an organization / agency is dependent on the performance of individual civil servants, over a period, an elaborate mechanism to evaluate the performance of individual government servants has evolved. These individual performance appraisal systems can be categorized as follows: (a) Conventional Closed System Of Annual Confidential Report (ACR). This is the traditional system, where at the end of a pre-set period (usually a calendar year); achievements of the officer are recorded and graded, absolutely or relatively. The significant feature of this method is the complete secrecy of the exercise, both in process and results, unless the rules specifically mention otherwise. Adverse remarks are communicated to the officer reported upon. (b) Performance Appraisal With Openness . This system is an improvement of the above, with the added feature of transparency and involvement of the officer at different levels. It involves setting goals at the start of the assessment period, reviews during the period and final assessment against achievement of goals. Finally, performance excellence is decided by a number (grades of 1-10) to be assigned by the reporting officer. 24. System in India. The performance of every Government servant is assessed annually through his / her Confidential Report, which is an important document providing the basic and vital inputs for assessing the performance of the Government servant and his / her suitability for further advancement in his / her career on occasions like confirmation, promotion, crossing of EB, selection for deputation, selection for foreign assignment etc. Performance appraisal through confidential reports is a tool for human resource development in order to enable a Government servant to realize his / her true potential. It is not a fault finding process, but a development one. The Reporting Officer, at the beginning of the year, has to set quantitative / physical targets in consultation with each of the Government servants, whose reports he / she is required to write. Performance appraisal is meant to be a joint exercise between the Government servant reported upon and the Reporting Officer. While fixing the targets, priority should be assigned item wise, taking into consideration the nature and the area of work. The Confidential Report is initiated by the Government servant to be reported upon, who gives a brief description of his / her duties, specifies the targets set for him wherever applicable, achievements against each target, shortfalls, if any, constraints encountered and areas where the achievements have been greater. In accordance with the recommendations of the Committee constituted under the Chairmanship of Lt Gen. (Retd. ) Surinder Nath in 2002, the Performance Appraisal System for All India Service Officers has been modified and the salient features include setting of goals in consultation with the appraised officer, a numerical grading system (scale of 1 to 10), introduction of a pen picture of the person being reviewed, sharing the entire PAR with the person being reviewed officer, etc. At present, the performance appraisal system in Government of India, as described above, falls largely in the first category but for the newly introduced system for All India Services officers. Methodology 25. The Annual Confidential Report is, in substance, an assessment in depth of the character and performance of each government employee at three tiers, namely, the Recording Authority, the Reviewing Authority, the Accepting Authority. These Annual Confidential Reports form the basis for the Government to decide on the ability or otherwise of each Government employee. Therefore, considerable importance is too be attached to this work by all concerned. The three authorities mentioned should make a sincere and serious attempt with a view to rendering the assessment of each employee as correctly as possible. Personal likes or dislikes of a subjective nature should not influence any of the authorities in any manner whosever nor should the authorities be swayed by a particular incident and extraneous consideration while recording the report, defects of any nature and achievement in any form should be properly highlighted. 26. The system of writing confidential reports has two objectives. First and foremost is to improve performance of the subordinates in their present job. The second is to assess their potential and to prepare them for the jobs suitable to their personality and potential. The columns of ACR’s are, therefore, to be filled up by the Reporting, Reviewing and Accepting authorities in an objective and impartial manner. 27. The three levels of authorities entrusted with the responsibility for the recording, reviewing and accepting the Annual Confidential Report shall routed in such a manner so that the Recording Authority should be the officer who is immediately superior to the officer reported upon, the Reviewing Authority should be the officer who is immediately superior to the Reviewing Authority and the Accepting Officer should be the immediate superior of the Reviewing Officer. 28. The general system and practice in the matter of communication of adverse remarks recorded in the Confidential Reports and the existing practice that no Confidential Reports should be written on any government employees unless the Recoding Authority had seen the performance of that employee for at least three months. When a member of the service has worked under more than one authority, during the period under report, the assessment report shall be written by all such authorities. The reporting officer may use the same form i. e one Reporting Authority writing the report first and the second Reporting Authority writing later (if need by making use of additional sheets of the C. R Forms) or the second Reporting authority may initiate a separate report. When there is more than one Reviewing Authority, the same practice shall be followed. 29. All the authorities at the recording as well as the reviewing levels are expected to exercise their mind independently while writing or reviewing the assessment report and should be free from being influenced or prejudiced by the assessment made or remarks by the former authorities. In cases where there is difference of opinion at the initiating or reviewing levels, the accepting authority can play a very significant role. When there are more than one Reviewing Authority in respect of assessment report recorded by any of the Reporting Authorised, one Reviewing Authority may review first, confining his personal views of finding in pursuance to the general assessment recorded there in of the work and performance of the officer reported upon for the department under him, and the other Reviewing Authority shall likewise review later exercising his mind independently taking in view the general reported assessment relating to the department under him. In such cases, if need be, additional sheet of confidential report form specifically for the purpose of remarks by the next respective Reviewing Authority(ties) as well as the Accepting Authority shall be utilised deleting the particular items meant for the purpose by the Recording Authority. The Reviewing Authority (ties) and the Accepting Authority (ties) are expected to generally know the quality of work and merit of the officer reported upon whose work and performance they are reviewing and / or accepting. With this point of view, they are also expected to exercise their mind independently while contributing their remarks and should be free from being influenced or prejudiced by the assessment of remarks of the former authorities. Performance Appraisal In The Australian Army 30. THE new ADF Performance Appraisal Report (PAR) for officers up to the rank of Lt to Col was introduced effective January 1, 2002, and replaced the Evaluation and Development Report – Officers (EDRO). 31. The purpose of the PAR is to provide a tri-service appraisal system for full and part-time, permanent /regular and active reserve officers. The PAR covers similar reporting dimensions as the EDRO, but no longer has the overall recommendation nor allows for justifications against extreme ratings on each performance dimension. The formal appraisal of officers seeks to provide feedback, identify strengths and weaknesses and record performance. It also seeks to identify an individual’s suitability for promotion and courses and to aid career management. Preliminary Review 32. The PAR is supported by the use of the Preliminary Review of Performance (PRP). The purpose of the PRP is to discuss and record goals for the member to achieve throughout the reporting period as well as support mid-term counselling against these agreed goals and the PAR performance dimensions. Supplementary Reports 32. ADF Performance Appraisal Supplementary Report is used where the member has undertaken a detachment or substantial secondary duties. This report is forwarded to the main assessor for consideration in drafting the PAR. Where the period of detachment is less than six weeks it may be done on either the supplementary report or a PRP. 33. Where the detachment is between six weeks and four months a PRP is recommended and over four months a separate PAR is raised. The performance appraisal cycle begins when an officer is first posted to a unit or at the start of a new reporting period. The assessor and senior assessor are designated at this time. At the start of the reporting period, or within 30 days of the effective date of the posting, the assessor is to meet with the member to discuss and record the goals for the member to achieve throughout the reporting period. This is recorded on the PRP. Midway through the reporting period, or after a minimum of six weeks observation the assessor and member get back together to review progress. The assessor also provides feedback on the member’s performance by rating the member’s performance against the individual performance dimensions. Again this is recorded on the PRP. At the end of the reporting period the PAR is compiled. 33. In order to complete this report the minimum period of observation is four months for full-time and 14 days for part-time members. The report is raised by the assessor, who then counsels the member. The member must sign the report, which then goes to the senior assessor and then back to the member for a second signature. The member may initiate a representation if the they feel that the report is unjustified. Performance Appraisal Systems In The Armed Forces An Overview 34. Performance appraisal systems in the Armed Forces are elaborate and rigorous because they are the main criteria for the very limited promotions that are made to higher positions in these services. For example, in the Army, only 3% of officers make it to the grade of Brigadier and above. The highlights of their system are as follows:- (a) Officers are evaluated on a scale of 1:9 on different attributes. This evaluation is done separately by the reporting officer and the next two higher levels. (b) For the purpose of promotions, the Army generally follows two types of systems the ‘closed’ system and the ‘open’ system. In the ‘closed’ system, the Promotion Board is not privy to the names of the officers being considered for promotion. Also officers of the same rank are permitted to attend deliberations of the promotion board as â€Å"observers† though they cannot participate in the discussions. In the ‘open’ system (for ranks of Major General and above); the identity of the officers being considered is also known to the Promotion Board. (c) There is a system of rating the reporting officers wherein the reporting officers are classified as ‘liberal’, ‘strict’ and ‘rating tendency not known’. (d) The prescribed trainings and examinations have to be cleared by the officers before they are considered fit for promotion. (e) The entire performance appraisal record of the officer is compiled in the form of a matrix with the numerical points assigned to each attribute and other details of appointment and achievements, the type of rating given, details of reporting officers battle honours etc. (f) Promotions in the Army are limited to the number of vacancies available making use of the three-year moving average of vacancies likely to be available. (g) In case an officer is not promoted for the first time, his case is reviewed two more times and thereafter, if he is still not considered fit for promotion and ultimately after obtaining the benefit of time scale, he retires at the relevant prescribed age 52 years in the case of a Colonel, 54 years for a Brigadier etc. 35. There are some variations in the performance appraisal and promotions in the other two Services. For example, in the Navy, a system of peer review exists in the form of a feedback from batch-mates of the officer being considered for promotion. They are informed of the number of vacancies and are asked to list the batch-mates whom they consider most suitable for being promoted to these posts. This peer review is not shared with the Promotion Board but is used by the Headquarters to validate the recommendations of the Promotion Board. Also in the Navy, there is a four-tier system of appraisal because being a comparatively smaller service the accepting authority for all officers is the Chief of Naval Staff. In the Air Force as in the Navy, the Promotion Board is an open one and in the Air Force, dossiers of the officers carry their photos. Unlike the Army which uses a three year moving average to determine the number of slots available for promotion, in the Navy and the Air Force, annual vacancies are taken into account. In the Air Force, a part of the Performance Appraisal form is filled up after discussions between the appraise and the reporting officer and both sign that portion of the appraisal report. Performance Appraisal in the Army : Detailed Analysis 36. Aim of Performance Appraisal. The aim of Annual Confidential Report (ACR) is to have an objective assessment of an officer’s competence, employability and potential as observed during the period covered by report, primarily for organisational requirements. All reporting officer must, thereof, be fair, impartial and objective in their assessment 37. Type of ACR. The Annual Confidential Report (ACR) in the army is based both upon the length of the service and the rank held by the ratee. Also the arm or the service to which the rate belongs also affects the type of the ACR. 38 Chain of Reporting. The Army follows three tiers of reporting. The ACR is initiated by the Initiating Officer (IO) who in turns forwards it to the Reviewing Officer (RO). The Reviewing Officer after reviewing the ACR forwards the same to the Senior Reviewing Officer (SRO) who after his endorsements forwards the ACR to the Army HQ (Military Secretary’s Branch) for filing and further disposal. 39. In the case of officers who are from the technical arms (for example EME, Signals, Engineers etc) there is another separate channel which reports upon the technical competence of the officer. These are the Frist Technical Officer and Higher Technical Officer) 40. The hierarchy of reporting is so designed that the IO is the immediate superior of the Ratee, the RO is the IO f or the IO and the SRO is the IO for the RO. The similar hierarchy is followed for the technical reporting also. 41. Components of the ACR. The ACR has the following components :- (a)Personal Qualities(PQ). These are qualities in the personal character of the rate officer such as Physical Attributes, Drive, Determination and Decivisiviness*, Dependability*, Moral Courage*, Integrity*, Loyalty*, Ingenuity and Imitative, Maturity and finally communication Skills. The qualities marked with the astrix sign are certain key qualities which are often referred to as the astrix qualities and any adverse grading in these qualities may seriously jeopardise the career prospects of the officer. (b)Performance Variable (PQ). These are the qualities reflect on the professional competence of the officer being reported upon. The PQ include, qualities like (i)Knowledge of own arm and service and its practical application. (ii)Knowledge of other arms and services (iii)Effectiveness in the training of his command. (iv)Ability to motivate his command. (v)Effectiveness in carrying out the administration of his command (vi)Dedication to the organization and the service. (c) Qualities to Asses Potential (QAP). Qualities to Assess Potential or the QAP are the qualities in the character of the ratee officer which indicate his capabilities and potential for the assumption of higher appointments and rank. These qualities are :- (i)Foresight and Planning (ii)Delegation (iii)Vision and Conceptual Ability (iv)Tolerance to Ambiguity (v)Professional competence to Handle Higher Appointment. (d)Box Grading. This is the overall grading given by the IO and the RO to the ratee. (e) Recommendations. These are the recommendations of the IO, the RO and the SRO for the promotion of the rate to the next higher rank, his suitability for various staff and instructional appointment’s etc. 42. Use of Various Appraisal Tools. The format of the ACR used in the Army makes use of various tools of appraisal. It has figurative assessments which are used in filling up the PQ, DVP and the QAP and the box grading. It has descriptive assessment wherein the various reviewing authorities write down the pen picture of the rate and it also has columns wherein the various reviewing 43. Transparency. The ACR in the Army is semi-transparent. About two third portion of the Appraisal written by the IO is shown to the ratee. The appraisal of the IO on the PQ, the DVP, the pen picture and the box grading are shown to the ratee by the IO and his initials obtained. However the recommendations of the IO about the promotion and future appointments is not shown to the ratee. The complete assessment made by the RO and the SRO are also not shown to the ratee. Only in case of an adverse entry in the ACR is the rate informed and his signatures obtained. 44. Role of IO, RO and the SRO. The role of the IO is to initiate the ACR for the ratee officer. The RO reviews the ACR and also comments weather the report initiated by the IO is â€Å"just, liberal or strict†. Similarly the SRO plays a role of balancer between the IO and the RO and also records his observations upon the report of the RO as being â€Å"Just, Liberal or Strict†. Action at the Military Secretary’s Branch MS Branch). 45. Internal Assessment. Once the ACR reaches the MS Branch the first step is to carry out a technical check of the ACR to see that it is technically correct. During th